清嘉慶、道光時(shí)期政治危機(jī)研究
發(fā)布時(shí)間：2018-09-10 20:12
【摘要】：本文對(duì)清嘉慶、道光時(shí)期政治危機(jī)的表象、原因及其性質(zhì)進(jìn)行初步探討。時(shí)間從1796年嘉慶繼位開始,到1850年道光去世為止,大約半個(gè)世紀(jì)。論文所說的“政治危機(jī)”,是指一個(gè)國家政權(quán)的統(tǒng)治者無法照舊統(tǒng)治下去,民眾無法照舊生活下去的統(tǒng)治危機(jī)。 嘉慶、道光時(shí)期政治危機(jī)的表象主要表現(xiàn)在四個(gè)方面。第一是吏治危機(jī),吏治危機(jī)又突出表現(xiàn)在官場(chǎng)道德危機(jī)和官場(chǎng)人才危機(jī)兩個(gè)方面。就官場(chǎng)道德危機(jī)來講,此時(shí)作為封建官員所必須遵循的為官從政的行為準(zhǔn)則,即仁政愛民、忠君愛國、廉潔奉公、公明勤儉,并不為大多數(shù)官員所遵守,這集中表現(xiàn)在官場(chǎng)全面的貪污腐化,酷烈虐民,欺騙蒙蔽,消極怠工,漠視民生。就官場(chǎng)人才危機(jī)來講,此時(shí)時(shí)逢衰世,皇權(quán)專制主義和為皇權(quán)專制主義服務(wù)的傳統(tǒng)道德進(jìn)一步暴露出它的落后性和腐朽性,嚴(yán)重地抑制和扼殺了大批有創(chuàng)造力的人才,而在官場(chǎng)得志的是一批奴才、庸才甚至貪才。第二是社會(huì)危機(jī),社會(huì)危機(jī)又主要表現(xiàn)在三個(gè)方面: 一是大量的流民游民饑民群;二是大量的宗教秘密結(jié)社;三是連續(xù)不斷的農(nóng)民暴動(dòng)。而這三者又相互作用,相互影響,始終聯(lián)系在一起。成千上萬的流民游民饑民,流離失所,生活赤貧,以各種方式和手段求生存,打亂了社會(huì)的正常秩序,造成了社會(huì)的急劇動(dòng)蕩;秘密結(jié)社從整體上看,對(duì)社會(huì)穩(wěn)定構(gòu)成威脅和破壞。而農(nóng)民暴動(dòng)更是一種動(dòng)搖封建統(tǒng)治根基的社會(huì)危機(jī)和政治危機(jī)。第三是民族危機(jī)。民族危機(jī)主要表現(xiàn)是滿族與漢族之間的矛盾和中華民族與外國侵略者之間的沖突。就官場(chǎng)來講,滿清所采取的崇滿抑漢的民族歧視政策,導(dǎo)致了國家行政效率的極端低下,各級(jí)官員的極端不負(fù)責(zé)任,對(duì)堆積如山的社會(huì)問題視而不見,對(duì)百姓疾苦的極其冷漠。這使整個(gè)大清帝國的行政運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)失靈,這種失靈對(duì)于一個(gè)大國來說是致命的,是很嚴(yán)重的政治危機(jī)。至于中華民族與西方列強(qiáng)的沖突,乃至戰(zhàn)爭,不是簡單地表現(xiàn)為清政府的失敗,西方國家的勝利。這種失敗給中國帶來了許多社會(huì)和政治問題,比如鴉片問題,經(jīng)濟(jì)問題,外交問題,國內(nèi)階級(jí)矛盾問題以及國家主權(quán)問題等等。清政府的統(tǒng)治及其政權(quán)的合法性發(fā)生了動(dòng)搖,這時(shí)的民族危機(jī)實(shí)際上是一種政治危機(jī)。第四是政改失敗,面對(duì)政治危機(jī),作為清王朝的總代表和象征的嘉慶、道光皇帝,也想進(jìn)行一些改革,企圖挽救末世的命運(yùn)。但此時(shí)大勢(shì)已去,內(nèi)憂外患,已無回天之力,清王朝已經(jīng)處于風(fēng)雨飄搖之中。而這四個(gè)方面又相互影響,相互作用,相互轉(zhuǎn)化,從而使此時(shí)的政治危機(jī)更加嚴(yán)重。嘉慶、道光時(shí)期政治危機(jī)的原因十分復(fù)雜,本論文從五個(gè)方面進(jìn)行了分析。 一是分析了乾隆后期乾隆皇帝給他兒子嘉慶皇帝留下了一個(gè)政治爛攤子,即吏治腐敗,社會(huì)動(dòng)蕩,國庫虧空,思想禁錮,清代由盛轉(zhuǎn)衰。二是嘉慶、道光因循守成的指導(dǎo)思想。由于嘉慶、道光皇帝對(duì)于先皇所取得的政績過于拔高而缺乏超越的底氣和自信,又深受傳統(tǒng)思想的消極影響,特別是深居宮中,不懂社會(huì)民生,更不懂治國之道,尤其昧于國內(nèi)大勢(shì)和世界大勢(shì),而一味地因循守舊,這是導(dǎo)致嘉慶、道光時(shí)期政治危機(jī)的思想根源。三是不合時(shí)宜的治國方略。嘉慶、道光治國的指導(dǎo)思想決定了他們的治國方略,概括起來主要是四點(diǎn),即:放任自流的人口政策,重本抑末的經(jīng)濟(jì)方略,道德萬能的治國方略,閉關(guān)鎖國方略。在治國方略方面,嘉道并無創(chuàng)新,完全是因循傳統(tǒng)。由于嘉道時(shí)期的中國和世界已經(jīng)發(fā)生了重大變化,“宗其常而不知其變”的嘉道治國方略已經(jīng)不合時(shí)宜,難以滿足國家經(jīng)濟(jì)社會(huì)發(fā)展以及政治穩(wěn)定的需要,甚至引發(fā)一些新的矛盾和危機(jī)。不合時(shí)宜的治國方略,是導(dǎo)致嘉慶、道光時(shí)期政治危機(jī)的戰(zhàn)略原因。四是封建制度與政治危機(jī)。這里主要分析了八個(gè)方面,即:道德禁欲主義,低俸制度,陋規(guī)制度,捐納制度,崇滿抑漢制度,君主專制制度,清代科舉制度,以及文字獄暴政。這里主要分析一些封建制度與清嘉慶、道光時(shí)期政治危機(jī)的密切關(guān)系,其中主要分析了封建制度抑制和扼殺人才,是導(dǎo)致嘉慶、道光時(shí)期政治危機(jī)的制度原因。五是從世界格局中看清嘉慶、道光時(shí)期的政治危機(jī),這是從當(dāng)時(shí)中西方的對(duì)比中來分析清嘉慶、道光時(shí)期的政治危機(jī)。這里從四個(gè)方面進(jìn)行了闡述,即:西方民主思想的興起與中國的萬馬齊喑,西方民主制度的建立與中國專制的強(qiáng)化,工業(yè)化運(yùn)動(dòng)與扼殺工商業(yè)的政策,西方科學(xué)技術(shù)的全面繁榮與中國統(tǒng)治者視科技為奇技淫巧。這時(shí)的西方國家與清王朝不是一個(gè)歷史發(fā)展階段的國家,其差距已整整是一個(gè)歷史時(shí)代:一個(gè)是傳統(tǒng)的農(nóng)業(yè)經(jīng)濟(jì)社會(huì),一個(gè)是工業(yè)化社會(huì);一個(gè)是腐朽的君主專制制度的國家,一個(gè)是現(xiàn)代民主制度的國家;一個(gè)是視人民如草芥,漠視民生的國家,一個(gè)是重人權(quán)、自由平等的國家;一個(gè)是以君權(quán)為基礎(chǔ)的人治國家,一個(gè)是以人權(quán)為基礎(chǔ)的法治國家;一個(gè)是視科學(xué)技術(shù)為奇技淫巧,扼殺壓制科學(xué)技術(shù)的國家,一個(gè)是科學(xué)技術(shù)大發(fā)展大繁榮的國家;一個(gè)是重農(nóng)抑末、對(duì)工商業(yè)打擊不遺余力的國家,一個(gè)是大力鼓勵(lì)發(fā)展工商業(yè)的國家;一個(gè)是閉關(guān)鎖國的國家,一個(gè)是積極擴(kuò)大開放,擴(kuò)展國際貿(mào)易的國家;一個(gè)是腐敗無能,平庸昏聵的官僚政治的國家,一個(gè)是精明能干、有進(jìn)取心、有國際視野、有遠(yuǎn)見的領(lǐng)導(dǎo)治理的國家。通過更廣闊的時(shí)空比較分析,能更清楚地認(rèn)識(shí)到清嘉慶、道光時(shí)期政治危機(jī)的深層次原因。 嘉慶、道光時(shí)期的政治危機(jī)既是封建王朝末世危機(jī),也是中國封建專制制度性危機(jī),還是歷史轉(zhuǎn)型期的危機(jī)。就封建王朝末世危機(jī)來講,這時(shí)清王朝正常的政治功能趨于喪失,而且危機(jī)不可自救。這主要表現(xiàn)在清嘉道政治體系已經(jīng)不能吸收社會(huì)精英,國家政策輸出和信息輸入基本受阻,國家整合社會(huì)的效能極低,以及統(tǒng)治者救弊無方和階級(jí)矛盾不可調(diào)和。嘉慶、道光時(shí)期的王朝末世危機(jī)特征,比以往任何王朝都更明顯,危機(jī)的程度更深,這是因?yàn)?它不只是封建王朝的末世危機(jī),也是封建專制制度的制度性危機(jī)。就封建專制制度性危機(jī)來講,它危害最烈的是制造了一批無思想、無主見、無擔(dān)當(dāng)?shù)呐?嚴(yán)重制約王朝的決策和執(zhí)行效率,造成了中國封建政治體制的封閉、板結(jié)和僵硬。這使得封建王朝無法在遭遇危機(jī)時(shí),通過自身的力量進(jìn)行和平式的自我調(diào)節(jié)和自我修復(fù),反而必須借助暴力改朝換代。這種制度不僅不利于每一個(gè)人作用的發(fā)揮,而且在根本上將中國置于治亂興衰的惡性循環(huán)之中。中國封建專制制度已成了嘉道時(shí)期統(tǒng)治危機(jī)的根源。只改朝換代,而不改變封建專制制度,嘉道危機(jī)就難以得到根本解決。由于嘉道時(shí)期的社會(huì)政治危機(jī)并非簡單的王朝末世危機(jī),它還是封建專制制度性危機(jī),所以危機(jī)的解決不能走王朝循環(huán)的老路,而需要進(jìn)行政治社會(huì)制度的深刻變革。由于這時(shí)中國國內(nèi)外的形勢(shì)發(fā)生了全面而深刻的變化,嘉慶、道光時(shí)期的政治危機(jī),故又是中國歷史轉(zhuǎn)型期的政治危機(jī)。歷史轉(zhuǎn)型期的政治危機(jī)有兩重含義:一是中國歷史從封建國家進(jìn)入了半殖民地半封建國家階段;二是此時(shí)的中國封建專制制度開始動(dòng)搖,落后的農(nóng)業(yè)經(jīng)濟(jì),落后的科學(xué)技術(shù),落后的思想文化,以及落后腐朽的君主專制制度,都不能照舊運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)下去,而須改弦更張。受到西方列強(qiáng)的入侵,君權(quán)政治開始向民權(quán)政治轉(zhuǎn)型,雖然60年后的1911年辛亥革命才推翻帝制,建立民國,但畢竟出現(xiàn)了歷史的轉(zhuǎn)機(jī),中國幾千年的專制統(tǒng)治的漫漫長夜中出現(xiàn)了一線曙光。
[Abstract]:This paper makes a preliminary study of the appearance, causes and nature of the political crisis in the period of Jiaqing and Daoguang in the Qing Dynasty, which lasted about half a century from the beginning of Jiaqing's succession in 1796 to the death of Daoguang in 1850. The ruling crisis.
In Jiaqing, the appearance of the political crisis in the Daoguang period is mainly manifested in four aspects. The first is the crisis of the bureaucracy. The crisis of the bureaucracy is also manifested in two aspects: the crisis of the official morality and the crisis of the official talents. Integrity, honesty, diligence and thrift are not observed by the majority of officials, which are mainly manifested in the overall corruption of the officialdom, cruel abuse of the people, deception, passive slack, ignorance of people's livelihood. Sexuality and decadence severely inhibit and stifle a large number of creative talents, while in the officialdom, a group of slaves, mediocre talents and even greedy talents win. The second is the social crisis, which is mainly manifested in three aspects:
One is a large number of vagrants hungry people; the other is a large number of religious secret associations; the third is a continuous peasant riots. And the three interact, influence each other, always linked. Thousands of vagrants hungry, displaced, living in extreme poverty, in various ways and means to survive, disrupting the normal order of society, resulting in The peasant uprising is a social and political crisis that shakes the foundation of feudal rule. The third is the national crisis. The national crisis is mainly manifested by the contradiction between Manchu and Han and the conflict between Chinese and foreign aggressors. As far as officialdom is concerned, the policy of national discrimination adopted by the Manchu Dynasty, which advocated the suppression of Han Dynasty, led to the extremely low efficiency of state administration, the extreme irresponsibility of officials at all levels, the ignorance of mountainous social problems, and the extreme indifference to the sufferings of the people. As for the conflicts between the Chinese nation and the Western powers and even the wars, they are not simply manifested as the failure of the Qing government and the victory of the western countries. The rule of the Qing government and the legitimacy of its regime were shaken. The national crisis was actually a political crisis. Fourthly, the failure of the political reform. In the face of the political crisis, as the general representative and symbol of the Qing Dynasty, Emperor Daoguang also wanted to carry out some reforms in an attempt to save the fate of the last generation. The Qing Dynasty was in the midst of ups and downs, and these four aspects interacted with each other, interacted and transformed each other, thus making the political crisis more serious at this time.
One is the analysis of a political mess left by Emperor Qianlong in the late Qianlong period to his son, Emperor Jiaqing, that is, corruption of the officials, social unrest, Treasury deficit, ideological imprisonment, the Qing Dynasty from prosperity to decline. It is the ideological root of the political crisis in the period of Jiaqing and Daoguang. Third, it is an inappropriate strategy to govern the country. The guiding ideology determines their strategy of governing the country, which can be summarized into four main points: the population policy of indulgence, the economic strategy of stressing the root and restraining the end, the strategy of governing the country with moral omnipotence, and the strategy of blocking the country. The change of Jia-Dao's strategy of governing the country is out of date. It is difficult to meet the needs of the country's economic and social development and political stability, and even causes some new contradictions and crises. This paper mainly analyzes eight aspects: moral asceticism, low salary system, bad rules system, donation system, the system of admiration and suppression of Han Dynasty, the system of monarchy, the system of imperial examination in Qing Dynasty, and the tyranny of literary prison. Fifthly, the political crisis in the period of Qing and Daoguang is seen from the world pattern. This is to analyze the political crisis in the period of Qing, Jiaqing and Daoguang from the contrast between China and the West. This paper expounds from four aspects, namely, the rise of Western democratic thought and the political crisis in the period of Daoguang. The establishment of Western democracy and the strengthening of Chinese autocracy, the industrialization movement and the policy of strangling industry and commerce, the overall prosperity of Western science and technology and the Chinese rulers regarded science and technology as a miracle and a lewd skill. At that time, the western countries and the Qing Dynasty were not countries in a historical stage of development, and the gap between them was a whole history. Times: one is a traditional agricultural economic society, one is an industrialized society; one is a decadent autocratic monarchy of the country, one is a modern democratic system of the country; one is to regard the people as mustard, disregard the people's livelihood of the country, one is to attach importance to human rights, freedom and equality of the country; one is based on the monarchy of the rule of man, one is based on. A country ruled by law on the basis of human rights; a country that regards science and technology as exotic and skillful, strangling and suppressing science and technology; a country that attaches great importance to agriculture and restrains the end of the world; a country that vigorously encourages the development of industry and commerce; a country that is closed to the outside world; and a country that is prosperous. It is a country that actively expands its opening up and expands international trade; a country with corrupt and incompetent, mediocre and dull bureaucracy; a country with smart, enterprising, international vision and far-sighted leadership and governance. Through a broader space-time comparative analysis, we can more clearly understand the deep-seated political crisis in Qing, Jiaqing and Daoguang periods. The second reason.
In Jiaqing, the political crisis in the Daoguang period was not only the crisis of the end of the feudal dynasty, but also the crisis of the Chinese feudal autocracy, or the crisis of the historical transition. Jiaqing, the Daoguang Dynasty's characteristics of the end-of-life crisis are more obvious than any other dynasty in the past, the degree of crisis is deeper, because it is not only the end of the feudal dynasty. The world crisis is also the institutional crisis of the feudal autocratic system.As far as the feudal autocratic institutional crisis is concerned, the most serious harm is to create a group of ideological, independent and unaffected slaves, which seriously restricts the efficiency of the dynasty's decision-making and execution, resulting in the closure, rigidity and rigidity of the Chinese feudal political system.This makes the feudal Dynasty impossible to exist. In times of crisis, peaceful self-regulation and self-repair through one's own strength must be carried out by means of violence instead. This system is not only unfavorable to the role of everyone, but also puts China in a vicious circle of ups and downs. China's feudal autocracy has become a ruling crisis in the Jiadao period. Because the social and political crisis of Jiadao period is not a simple crisis of the last dynasty, it is also a crisis of the feudal autocratic system, so the solution of the crisis can not follow the old road of Dynasty cycle, but needs a deep political and social system. The political crisis in the period of Jiaqing and Daoguang is also a political crisis in the period of China's historical transformation. The political crisis in the period of historical transformation has two meanings: first, China's history has entered the stage of semi-colonial and semi-feudal state from the feudal state; second, at this time. China's feudal autocratic system began to shake, backward agricultural economy, backward science and technology, backward ideology and culture, as well as backward and decadent monarchy system, can not continue to run, but must be changed. The overthrow of the imperial system and the establishment of the Republic of China, but after all, a turning point in history, China's autocratic rule for thousands of years in the long night of a glimmer of light.
【學(xué)位授予單位】：湖南大學(xué)
【學(xué)位級(jí)別】：博士
【學(xué)位授予年份】：2011
【分類號(hào)】：K249.3
本文編號(hào)：2235493
[Abstract]:This paper makes a preliminary study of the appearance, causes and nature of the political crisis in the period of Jiaqing and Daoguang in the Qing Dynasty, which lasted about half a century from the beginning of Jiaqing's succession in 1796 to the death of Daoguang in 1850. The ruling crisis.
In Jiaqing, the appearance of the political crisis in the Daoguang period is mainly manifested in four aspects. The first is the crisis of the bureaucracy. The crisis of the bureaucracy is also manifested in two aspects: the crisis of the official morality and the crisis of the official talents. Integrity, honesty, diligence and thrift are not observed by the majority of officials, which are mainly manifested in the overall corruption of the officialdom, cruel abuse of the people, deception, passive slack, ignorance of people's livelihood. Sexuality and decadence severely inhibit and stifle a large number of creative talents, while in the officialdom, a group of slaves, mediocre talents and even greedy talents win. The second is the social crisis, which is mainly manifested in three aspects:
One is a large number of vagrants hungry people; the other is a large number of religious secret associations; the third is a continuous peasant riots. And the three interact, influence each other, always linked. Thousands of vagrants hungry, displaced, living in extreme poverty, in various ways and means to survive, disrupting the normal order of society, resulting in The peasant uprising is a social and political crisis that shakes the foundation of feudal rule. The third is the national crisis. The national crisis is mainly manifested by the contradiction between Manchu and Han and the conflict between Chinese and foreign aggressors. As far as officialdom is concerned, the policy of national discrimination adopted by the Manchu Dynasty, which advocated the suppression of Han Dynasty, led to the extremely low efficiency of state administration, the extreme irresponsibility of officials at all levels, the ignorance of mountainous social problems, and the extreme indifference to the sufferings of the people. As for the conflicts between the Chinese nation and the Western powers and even the wars, they are not simply manifested as the failure of the Qing government and the victory of the western countries. The rule of the Qing government and the legitimacy of its regime were shaken. The national crisis was actually a political crisis. Fourthly, the failure of the political reform. In the face of the political crisis, as the general representative and symbol of the Qing Dynasty, Emperor Daoguang also wanted to carry out some reforms in an attempt to save the fate of the last generation. The Qing Dynasty was in the midst of ups and downs, and these four aspects interacted with each other, interacted and transformed each other, thus making the political crisis more serious at this time.
One is the analysis of a political mess left by Emperor Qianlong in the late Qianlong period to his son, Emperor Jiaqing, that is, corruption of the officials, social unrest, Treasury deficit, ideological imprisonment, the Qing Dynasty from prosperity to decline. It is the ideological root of the political crisis in the period of Jiaqing and Daoguang. Third, it is an inappropriate strategy to govern the country. The guiding ideology determines their strategy of governing the country, which can be summarized into four main points: the population policy of indulgence, the economic strategy of stressing the root and restraining the end, the strategy of governing the country with moral omnipotence, and the strategy of blocking the country. The change of Jia-Dao's strategy of governing the country is out of date. It is difficult to meet the needs of the country's economic and social development and political stability, and even causes some new contradictions and crises. This paper mainly analyzes eight aspects: moral asceticism, low salary system, bad rules system, donation system, the system of admiration and suppression of Han Dynasty, the system of monarchy, the system of imperial examination in Qing Dynasty, and the tyranny of literary prison. Fifthly, the political crisis in the period of Qing and Daoguang is seen from the world pattern. This is to analyze the political crisis in the period of Qing, Jiaqing and Daoguang from the contrast between China and the West. This paper expounds from four aspects, namely, the rise of Western democratic thought and the political crisis in the period of Daoguang. The establishment of Western democracy and the strengthening of Chinese autocracy, the industrialization movement and the policy of strangling industry and commerce, the overall prosperity of Western science and technology and the Chinese rulers regarded science and technology as a miracle and a lewd skill. At that time, the western countries and the Qing Dynasty were not countries in a historical stage of development, and the gap between them was a whole history. Times: one is a traditional agricultural economic society, one is an industrialized society; one is a decadent autocratic monarchy of the country, one is a modern democratic system of the country; one is to regard the people as mustard, disregard the people's livelihood of the country, one is to attach importance to human rights, freedom and equality of the country; one is based on the monarchy of the rule of man, one is based on. A country ruled by law on the basis of human rights; a country that regards science and technology as exotic and skillful, strangling and suppressing science and technology; a country that attaches great importance to agriculture and restrains the end of the world; a country that vigorously encourages the development of industry and commerce; a country that is closed to the outside world; and a country that is prosperous. It is a country that actively expands its opening up and expands international trade; a country with corrupt and incompetent, mediocre and dull bureaucracy; a country with smart, enterprising, international vision and far-sighted leadership and governance. Through a broader space-time comparative analysis, we can more clearly understand the deep-seated political crisis in Qing, Jiaqing and Daoguang periods. The second reason.
In Jiaqing, the political crisis in the Daoguang period was not only the crisis of the end of the feudal dynasty, but also the crisis of the Chinese feudal autocracy, or the crisis of the historical transition. Jiaqing, the Daoguang Dynasty's characteristics of the end-of-life crisis are more obvious than any other dynasty in the past, the degree of crisis is deeper, because it is not only the end of the feudal dynasty. The world crisis is also the institutional crisis of the feudal autocratic system.As far as the feudal autocratic institutional crisis is concerned, the most serious harm is to create a group of ideological, independent and unaffected slaves, which seriously restricts the efficiency of the dynasty's decision-making and execution, resulting in the closure, rigidity and rigidity of the Chinese feudal political system.This makes the feudal Dynasty impossible to exist. In times of crisis, peaceful self-regulation and self-repair through one's own strength must be carried out by means of violence instead. This system is not only unfavorable to the role of everyone, but also puts China in a vicious circle of ups and downs. China's feudal autocracy has become a ruling crisis in the Jiadao period. Because the social and political crisis of Jiadao period is not a simple crisis of the last dynasty, it is also a crisis of the feudal autocratic system, so the solution of the crisis can not follow the old road of Dynasty cycle, but needs a deep political and social system. The political crisis in the period of Jiaqing and Daoguang is also a political crisis in the period of China's historical transformation. The political crisis in the period of historical transformation has two meanings: first, China's history has entered the stage of semi-colonial and semi-feudal state from the feudal state; second, at this time. China's feudal autocratic system began to shake, backward agricultural economy, backward science and technology, backward ideology and culture, as well as backward and decadent monarchy system, can not continue to run, but must be changed. The overthrow of the imperial system and the establishment of the Republic of China, but after all, a turning point in history, China's autocratic rule for thousands of years in the long night of a glimmer of light.
【學(xué)位授予單位】：湖南大學(xué)
【學(xué)位級(jí)別】：博士
【學(xué)位授予年份】：2011
【分類號(hào)】：K249.3
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